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GNDU Question Paper-2022
B.A 2
nd
Semester
HISTORY
[History of India(C.1000 – A.D.1707)]
Time Allowed: Two Hours Maximum Marks: 100
Note: There are Eight questions of equal marks. Candidates are required to attempt any
Four questions
SECTION-A
1. Discuss the different invasions of Muhammad Ghauri. Can he be described the founder
of the Muslim rule in India?
2. What do you know about the Blood and Iron Policy of Balban?
SECTION-B
3. Discuss the Administrative and Economic Policies of Feroze Tughlaq.
4. Describe the Administration of the Vijaynagar Kingdom.
SECTION-C
5. Describe the military conquests of Sher Shah Suri after becoming the Emperor of India.
6. What factors influenced the Religious Policy of Akbar ? Discuss its development in brief.
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SECTION-D
7. Write an essay on the Mansabdari System pointing out its main merits and demerits.
8. Discuss Maratha Administration under Shivaji.
GNDU Answer Paper-2022
B.A 2
nd
Semester
HISTORY
[History of India(C.1000 – A.D.1707)]
Time Allowed: Two Hours Maximum Marks: 100
Note: There are Eight questions of equal marks. Candidates are required to attempt any
Four questions
SECTION-A
1. Discuss the different invasions of Muhammad Ghauri. Can he be described the founder
of the Muslim rule in India?
Ans: The Invasions of Muhammad Ghauri and His Role in Founding Muslim Rule in India
Introduction
Muhammad Ghauri was a key figure in Indian history who led a series of invasions into the
Indian subcontinent during the late 12th century. Born as Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad in Ghor
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(modern-day Afghanistan), Ghauri played a crucial role in establishing Muslim rule in
northern India. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided India primarily for wealth, Ghauri
aimed to expand his empire and create a lasting political presence.
Let’s explore the different invasions of Muhammad Ghauri, his victories, challenges, and
whether he can truly be called the founder of Muslim rule in India.
Background of Muhammad Ghauri
• The Ghurid Dynasty: Muhammad Ghauri belonged to the Ghurid dynasty, which
rose to power in present-day Afghanistan. His brother, Ghiyas-ud-din, was the ruler
of Ghor, and Ghauri acted as his military commander.
• Strategic Interests in India: Ghauri realized that conquering India would provide him
with a base for further expansion and access to its wealth. He aimed to establish
control over fertile lands and trade routes.
Major Invasions of Muhammad Ghauri
Muhammad Ghauri’s invasions of India can be divided into multiple phases, starting from
smaller conquests and culminating in large-scale campaigns.
1. First Invasion: Multan and Uch (1175-1178)
• Objective: Ghauri's first target was Multan, a key city in Punjab, and Uch in Sindh, to
secure a foothold in India.
• Success: He captured Multan and Uch with relative ease, as these regions had weak
defenses and fragmented rulers.
• Significance: This success marked the beginning of his Indian campaigns and allowed
him to consolidate power near the Indus River.
2. Second Invasion: Gujarat (1178)
• Objective: Ghauri aimed to expand his territory by attacking Gujarat, ruled by the
powerful Chalukya king Bhima II.
• Outcome: Ghauri faced a crushing defeat at the Battle of Kasahrada (or Battle of
Anhilwara). Bhima II's army, supported by local Rajput warriors, decisively repelled
the invasion.
• Impact: This failure taught Ghauri the importance of consolidating power in northern
India before advancing into stronger southern territories.
3. Third Invasion: Punjab (1186-1187)
• Objective: Ghauri turned his attention back to Punjab and sought to weaken the
Ghaznavid remnants controlling the region.
• Success: He defeated Khusrau Malik, the last ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty, and
annexed Lahore.
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• Significance: This victory ended Ghaznavid rule in Punjab and established Ghauri’s
control over the region.
4. The Battle of Tarain (1191 and 1192)
The two Battles of Tarain were pivotal moments in Ghauri’s Indian campaigns.
• First Battle of Tarain (1191):
o Ghauri marched towards Delhi but was confronted by the Rajput king
Prithviraj Chauhan.
o In this battle, Ghauri was defeated and wounded by the Rajput forces. He
narrowly escaped death and retreated to Ghazni.
o This defeat was a significant setback, but it did not deter Ghauri’s ambitions.
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192):
o Ghauri returned the following year with a well-prepared army, using better
strategies and diplomacy.
o He defeated Prithviraj Chauhan decisively. The Rajput army was
outmaneuvered, and Prithviraj was captured and executed.
o Significance: This victory opened the gates of northern India to Ghauri and
allowed him to establish Muslim dominance in the region.
5. Consolidation and Further Conquests (1193-1206)
• After the victory at Tarain, Ghauri’s forces advanced further into northern India.
• His general, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, captured Delhi in 1193 and laid the foundation of
Muslim rule in the city.
• Ghauri’s campaigns extended to Bengal and Bihar, where his lieutenant Bakhtiyar
Khilji established control over these regions.
Muhammad Ghauri’s Contributions to Muslim Rule in India
1. Political Foundation
• Ghauri established a framework for governance in northern India by appointing loyal
generals and administrators, such as Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later became the first
Sultan of Delhi.
• His victories created a base for the Delhi Sultanate, which would rule India for over
three centuries.
2. Military Strategy
• Unlike earlier invaders, Ghauri adopted a systematic approach to conquest. He used
superior cavalry, discipline, and tactics, such as feigned retreats, to defeat larger
armies.
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3. Religious Impact
• Ghauri’s campaigns led to the spread of Islam in northern India. Mosques, madrasas
(Islamic schools), and Sufi centers were established, influencing Indian culture and
society.
Was Muhammad Ghauri the Founder of Muslim Rule in India?
While Ghauri played a crucial role in establishing Muslim power in India, there are
arguments both for and against calling him the "founder" of Muslim rule.
Arguments in Favor:
1. Systematic Conquest: Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, who raided and left, Ghauri aimed
to establish a permanent political structure.
2. Control Over Key Regions: His victories in Punjab, Delhi, and surrounding areas
created a stable base for Muslim rule.
3. Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate: Ghauri’s trusted general, Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
became the first Sultan of Delhi in 1206, directly continuing Ghauri’s legacy.
Arguments Against:
1. Role of Qutb-ud-din Aibak: Aibak is often credited with establishing the Delhi
Sultanate and organizing governance, which makes him a co-founder or even the
true founder in some perspectives.
2. Ghauri’s Death: Ghauri died in 1206 without consolidating all his conquests, leaving
much of the work to his successors.
Legacy of Muhammad Ghauri
• Ghauri’s campaigns marked a turning point in Indian history, ushering in a new era of
cultural and political transformation.
• His victories paved the way for centuries of Muslim rule in India, influencing
architecture, art, language, and religion.
• Ghauri’s legacy lives on through structures like the Qutb Minar, built by Qutb-ud-din
Aibak, symbolizing the start of the Delhi Sultanate.
Conclusion
Muhammad Ghauri’s invasions were instrumental in shaping Indian history. His victories at
Multan, Punjab, and particularly the second Battle of Tarain, allowed him to establish a
strong foundation for Muslim rule in India. While debates persist over whether he was the
"founder" of Muslim rule, his role as a pivotal figure in creating the conditions for the Delhi
Sultanate cannot be denied. Muhammad Ghauri remains a significant figure whose impact
on Indian history is both profound and enduring.
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2. What do you know about the Blood and Iron Policy of Balban?
Ans: The Blood and Iron Policy of Balban
Balban, one of the most powerful rulers of the Delhi Sultanate during the Slave Dynasty
(1266–1287 AD), is remembered for his strong and uncompromising policies. His most
famous policy is often referred to as the "Blood and Iron" policy. This phrase symbolizes his
approach to governance, which was marked by strict discipline, ruthless measures, and an
unwavering focus on strengthening the Sultanate's authority.
Historical Context
Balban came to power at a time when the Delhi Sultanate was struggling with internal
rebellions, external threats, and weak central authority. His predecessors faced challenges
from the nobles, regional chieftains, Mongol invasions, and local revolts. The Sultanate was
on the verge of collapse, and Balban realized that only a strong, centralized government
with strict enforcement of authority could save it. To achieve this, he adopted a policy of
"Blood and Iron," emphasizing suppression of rebellions, elimination of enemies, and
consolidation of power.
Features of the Blood and Iron Policy
1. Suppression of Nobles and Rebellions
o Balban was deeply aware of the role the nobles, known as Amirs and Umara,
played in undermining the Sultanate's authority. These nobles had become
powerful, often challenging the Sultan's decisions.
o Balban introduced a system of strict discipline among the nobles. He
eliminated disloyal nobles and punished those who showed even the slightest
sign of rebellion.
o For example, Balban dealt mercilessly with Malik Baqbaq, a noble governor of
Badaun, who was known for his tyrannical behavior. Balban had him publicly
flogged to set an example.
o He also suppressed local rebellions with an iron fist. In the region of Mewat,
for instance, he crushed the rebellious Meo tribes, ensuring that they could
not rise against his rule again.
2. Centralization of Power
o Balban concentrated all power in his own hands and worked to reduce the
influence of powerful groups, including the Turkish nobility, known as the
Chahalgani (The Forty).
o The Chahalgani had become a dominating force in the administration, often
interfering in the Sultan's decisions. Balban systematically weakened their
influence and ensured that no one could challenge his authority.
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o He declared that the Sultan was the representative of God on earth, thereby
elevating the status of the king and reducing the power of the nobles.
3. Military Strength
o To enforce his policies, Balban focused on strengthening the military. He
recruited loyal soldiers and established a well-equipped army to deal with
internal and external threats.
o The Mongols were a constant threat during his reign, and Balban fortified the
northwestern frontier to protect the Sultanate. He built strong forts,
stationed soldiers in key areas, and ensured that the borders were well-
guarded.
o His military campaigns against rebels in regions like Bengal and Awadh
demonstrated his resolve to maintain order through force.
4. Harsh Justice
o Balban believed in severe punishment as a deterrent against crime and
rebellion. He introduced a harsh justice system where criminals and rebels
were dealt with ruthlessly.
o His famous statement, “The king's dignity is upheld by awe and terror,”
reflects his belief that fear was necessary to maintain law and order.
o For instance, when a dacoit group threatened the roads and disrupted trade,
Balban ordered mass executions to restore safety.
5. Restoration of Law and Order
o One of Balban’s significant achievements was restoring law and order across
the Sultanate. He understood that a stable administration required the
elimination of banditry and lawlessness.
o Balban personally monitored the work of his officials and dismissed those
who failed to maintain peace in their regions. His strict measures helped
improve the overall security of the Sultanate.
6. Symbolism and Royal Dignity
o Balban emphasized the need for the Sultan to maintain an aura of grandeur
and dignity. He adopted Persian customs, such as prostration (Sijdah) and
kissing the Sultan’s feet, to reinforce the idea of divine kingship.
o This emphasis on royal dignity discouraged the nobles and common people
from challenging his authority.
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Impact of the Blood and Iron Policy
1. Strengthened the Sultanate
o Balban's policies helped stabilize the Delhi Sultanate during a period of crisis.
His strong administration and centralized control laid the foundation for
future rulers to build upon.
o The suppression of rebellious elements ensured that the Sultanate remained
intact despite internal and external threats.
2. End of the Chahalgani
o By eliminating the influence of the Chahalgani, Balban ensured that no noble
faction could dominate the Sultanate. This move also set an example for
subsequent rulers to maintain control over powerful nobles.
3. Control Over Provinces
o Balban's campaigns in regions like Bengal, Awadh, and Mewat ensured that
these provinces remained loyal to the central authority. His measures also
curbed the influence of local rulers who often acted independently.
4. Improved Security
o The crackdown on banditry and lawlessness made trade routes safer,
benefiting the economy of the Sultanate. It also improved the daily lives of
common people who suffered under unchecked crime.
Limitations of the Blood and Iron Policy
1. Overemphasis on Fear
o Balban’s reliance on fear and harsh punishments alienated many people,
including nobles and common citizens. While it ensured short-term stability,
it created resentment that surfaced after his death.
o His strict policies lacked flexibility, which made his rule seem oppressive.
2. No Heir to Continue His Legacy
o Despite his efforts, Balban failed to ensure a strong successor. His chosen
heir, Prince Muhammad, died during a Mongol invasion. After Balban's death,
the Sultanate faced a power vacuum, leading to instability.
3. Failure to Address Long-term Issues
o While Balban focused on strengthening central authority, he did not address
deeper social and economic issues. His rule relied heavily on force rather
than reforms, which limited its long-term impact.
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Analogies and Examples
To understand Balban’s policy, think of a strict school principal who enforces discipline
through strict rules and harsh punishments. While the school might function smoothly
under their leadership, the atmosphere becomes tense, and students may feel resentful.
Similarly, Balban’s rule was effective but created an environment of fear and resentment.
Another example can be drawn from the story of a farmer who cuts down weeds to protect
his crops. While the immediate threat is eliminated, the roots of the weeds remain, and
they grow back later. Balban’s approach to governance was similar—he removed immediate
threats but did not address underlying issues.
Conclusion
Balban’s Blood and Iron policy was a reflection of his determination to restore the strength
and dignity of the Delhi Sultanate. Through strict discipline, ruthless suppression of
rebellions, and centralization of power, he succeeded in stabilizing the Sultanate during a
challenging period. However, his reliance on fear and lack of long-term planning limited the
enduring impact of his rule. Despite these shortcomings, Balban remains a significant figure
in Indian history for his role in consolidating the Delhi Sultanate and laying the foundation
for future rulers.
SECTION-B
3. Discuss the Administrative and Economic Policies of Feroze Tughlaq.
Ans: Administrative and Economic Policies of Feroze Tughlaq
Feroze Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388) was one of the most notable rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty
in medieval India. His reign is remembered for significant administrative reforms and
economic policies aimed at stabilizing the kingdom, improving governance, and providing
relief to his subjects. Let us delve into these policies in detail:
Administrative Policies of Feroze Tughlaq
Feroze Tughlaq introduced several administrative measures to ensure better governance
and justice. His policies reflected his concern for the welfare of his people, although they
were sometimes restrictive and influenced by religious considerations.
1. Decentralization of Administration
Feroze believed in reducing the centralized control of the empire. He delegated powers to
local officials and governors, making administration more efficient at regional levels.
However, this also allowed provincial leaders to grow powerful, weakening central authority
in the long run.
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2. Establishment of New Departments
To make governance more organized, Feroze established several new departments. Some of
these included:
• Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity Department): Provided aid to the poor, widows, and
orphans.
• Diwan-i-Bandagan (Department of Slaves): Managed the affairs of slaves. Feroze
employed and trained thousands of slaves, assigning them roles in administration
and military.
• Diwan-i-Istihqaq: Ensured pensions and stipends for the elderly and the disabled.
These departments reflected his focus on welfare and inclusiveness in governance.
3. Judicial Reforms
Feroze was a devout Muslim, and his policies were influenced by Islamic principles. He
implemented Sharia law as the guiding principle for justice. While this provided a sense of
order for Muslims, it marginalized non-Muslim communities to some extent.
• He abolished certain cruel punishments, such as cutting off limbs, replacing them
with fines or imprisonment.
• He ensured that the judiciary operated independently and cases were resolved
swiftly.
4. Tax Reforms and Religious Policies
Feroze implemented policies that aligned with his religious beliefs:
• He imposed Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) strictly. Women and children were also not
exempt from this tax.
• Land taxes were reduced for Muslim farmers, showing favoritism towards his
religious community.
This religious bias sometimes created discontent among the non-Muslim population,
particularly Hindus.
5. Construction and Infrastructure Development
Feroze Tughlaq was known for his passion for building public infrastructure:
• Irrigation Canals: He built several canals to improve agriculture. The canals from the
Yamuna and Sutlej rivers are notable examples.
• Mosques and Madrasas: He built many mosques and educational institutions to
promote Islamic teachings.
• Hospitals (Dar-ul-Shifa): Feroze established hospitals for the treatment of common
people.
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6. Maintenance of Historical Monuments
Feroze took a keen interest in preserving the monuments and structures built by his
predecessors. For instance, he repaired the Qutub Minar and other historical sites, ensuring
their longevity.
Economic Policies of Feroze Tughlaq
Feroze’s economic policies were focused on the welfare of his people and the prosperity of
his empire. His reign saw significant efforts in stabilizing the economy, though some
measures had long-term negative effects.
1. Agricultural Development
Feroze paid great attention to agriculture, which was the backbone of the economy during
that time. His measures included:
• Canal Irrigation: He constructed canals to bring water to farmlands, ensuring better
irrigation and increased agricultural output. Examples include the canals from the
Yamuna and Ghaggar rivers.
• Land Revenue Reforms: Feroze reduced the land tax to one-tenth of the produce,
which was a relief for farmers. This policy encouraged more people to engage in
agriculture.
• Loans for Farmers: He provided loans (called Taccavi loans) to farmers for buying
seeds, cattle, and tools, promoting agricultural activities.
2. Rehabilitation of Abandoned Land
Feroze took steps to bring barren and abandoned land under cultivation. He offered
incentives to farmers who agreed to cultivate these lands, thus expanding the agricultural
base of the empire.
3. Promotion of Trade and Commerce
Feroze understood the importance of trade in boosting the economy. His policies aimed to
facilitate commerce:
• He reduced taxes on certain goods to encourage traders.
• Roads and rest houses were built to provide better infrastructure for traders.
• Ports were developed, and trade with foreign countries, especially in the Middle
East, was encouraged.
4. Introduction of Market Reforms
Feroze regulated the market to ensure fair trade practices. Prices of essential goods were
fixed, and hoarding was discouraged. This ensured that even the poorest could afford basic
necessities.
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5. Minting of Coins
Feroze introduced several new coins, which were made of cheaper metals like copper and
brass, in addition to gold and silver coins. This made the currency more accessible to the
common people.
6. Economic Relief for Common People
Feroze abolished certain harsh taxes imposed by his predecessors, such as:
• Cesses on Non-Essential Items: This provided relief to traders and farmers.
• Tax on Brahmins: To improve relations with the Hindu community, he abolished a tax
levied specifically on Brahmins.
Examples of Welfare Policies
Feroze Shah Tughlaq’s welfare-oriented policies were well-received by many of his
subjects. For instance:
• His construction of hospitals helped improve public health.
• The introduction of pensions for the elderly showed his concern for societal well-
being.
• By building canals, he not only improved agriculture but also ensured a steady supply
of drinking water to arid regions.
Challenges and Drawbacks
Despite his good intentions, some of Feroze Tughlaq’s policies had drawbacks:
1. Religious Bias: His favoritism towards Muslims and imposition of Jizya alienated non-
Muslims, especially Hindus.
2. Dependence on Slaves: The large number of slaves employed in administration
made the system rigid and dependent on their loyalty.
3. Decentralization Issues: Delegating too much power to regional governors
weakened the central authority, contributing to the eventual decline of the Tughlaq
dynasty.
Legacy of Feroze Tughlaq
Feroze’s administrative and economic reforms had a lasting impact on medieval India:
• His canal systems continued to benefit agriculture long after his reign.
• His focus on welfare and public works inspired subsequent rulers.
• However, his religious policies and inability to manage regional governors
contributed to the fragmentation of his empire after his death.
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In conclusion, Feroze Tughlaq’s administrative and economic policies were a mix of welfare-
oriented measures and religiously influenced practices. While he succeeded in bringing
stability to the empire during his reign, some of his policies sowed seeds of discord and
weakness for future generations. His contributions, particularly in agriculture,
infrastructure, and public welfare, remain a significant part of India’s medieval history.
4. Describe the Administration of the Vijaynagar Kingdom.
Ans: Administration of the Vijayanagar Kingdom
The Vijayanagar Kingdom (1336–1646) was one of the most prominent South Indian
empires, founded by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. It played a significant role
in preserving Hindu culture and resisting invasions from the north. The administration of the
Vijayanagar Kingdom was highly organized and efficient, with a focus on centralization and
maintaining a strong, stable government. Let’s explore its administrative structure in a
detailed, simple, and comprehensive manner.
1. Central Administration
The Vijayanagar Kingdom followed a monarchical system, meaning that the king was the
supreme authority in all matters of governance. The central administration revolved around
the king, who held both executive and judicial powers.
The Role of the King
• The king was considered divine, often regarded as the representative of God on
Earth. This gave him immense respect and obedience from his subjects.
• He was the head of the state, military, judiciary, and revenue system. All important
decisions regarding governance, war, alliances, and internal administration were
taken by the king.
• The kings, such as Krishnadevaraya, were known for their strong leadership and
personal involvement in administrative matters. For example, Krishnadevaraya
frequently traveled across the empire to ensure smooth governance.
Council of Ministers
• The king was assisted by a council of ministers (Pradhans or Amatyas), who advised
him on various matters. This council included experienced and knowledgeable
officials.
• The Prime Minister, called the Mahapradhana, was the most important member and
acted as the king’s chief advisor.
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2. Provincial Administration
The empire was vast, so it was divided into provinces (referred to as Mandala or Rajya) for
efficient administration. This division allowed the central government to maintain control
over distant regions.
Governors (Nayakas or Amaranayakas)
• Each province was governed by a Nayaka or a royal officer appointed by the king.
• The Nayakas were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, and
managing the provincial army.
• They had considerable autonomy in their regions but were expected to remain loyal
to the central government.
Revenue Collection
• The governors collected taxes from farmers, merchants, and artisans. A significant
portion of the revenue was sent to the central treasury, while the rest was used for
local development and maintaining armies.
Example: Nayaka System
• A unique feature of Vijayanagar’s administration was the Nayaka system, where local
chiefs or military commanders were granted land in exchange for providing troops to
the king. These Nayakas acted like feudal lords, ensuring regional stability while
supporting the central government in times of war.
3. Village Administration
The village was the basic unit of administration in the Vijayanagar Kingdom. The local
governance system was highly efficient and well-structured.
Village Assemblies (Grama Sabha)
• Villages were managed by local councils or assemblies, which handled day-to-day
administrative tasks.
• These councils were made up of respected elders and village representatives. They
resolved disputes, managed irrigation, and oversaw tax collection.
Revenue System
• The main source of income for the kingdom was agricultural revenue. Taxes were
collected in the form of grain, money, or goods.
• A part of the revenue was spent on constructing tanks, wells, and other irrigation
facilities to improve agricultural productivity.
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4. Military Administration
The Vijayanagar Empire had a strong and well-organized military system, which was
essential for defending the kingdom against invasions.
Structure of the Army
• The army included infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and a navy. Each unit was trained
and maintained with great care.
• The empire relied heavily on its cavalry, often importing horses from Persia and
Arabia to strengthen its forces.
Fortifications
• The Vijayanagar kings built strong forts and city walls to protect their empire. The
capital city of Vijayanagar (modern Hampi) was surrounded by massive stone walls,
making it almost impenetrable.
Role of Nayakas
• The Nayakas played a crucial role in maintaining the military strength of the empire.
They provided troops and managed local armies as part of their feudal duties.
5. Judicial Administration
The Vijayanagar Kingdom had a fair and systematic judicial system.
Central Judiciary
• The king was the highest authority in the judicial system. He personally heard
important cases, especially those involving nobles or high-ranking officials.
Provincial and Local Judiciary
• Provincial governors and village assemblies handled most judicial matters at the
regional and local levels.
• Punishments were strict to ensure law and order. Theft, murder, and corruption
were dealt with harshly.
Customary Laws
• The judicial system also respected local customs and traditions. Hindu law (Dharma
Shastra) formed the basis of legal practices, and caste-based disputes were often
resolved by community elders.
6. Economic Administration
The Vijayanagar Kingdom was economically prosperous, and its administration focused on
maximizing revenue and supporting trade.
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Revenue Collection
• The main sources of revenue were:
o Land tax (usually one-sixth of the produce).
o Taxes on trade, professions, and markets.
• Irrigation facilities like canals and tanks were constructed to boost agricultural
production, which was the backbone of the economy.
Trade and Commerce
• The empire had thriving internal and external trade networks. It exported spices,
textiles, and precious stones to Persia, Arabia, and Southeast Asia.
• The ports of Goa and Mangalore were important centers for maritime trade.
Example: Bazaar System
• The capital city had bustling markets (bazaars), where merchants from different
parts of the world traded goods. The marketplaces were so vibrant that travelers like
Niccolò de’ Conti and Domingo Paes praised them in their accounts.
7. Cultural Administration
The Vijayanagar rulers were great patrons of art, architecture, and literature. Their
administration encouraged cultural growth alongside political stability.
Promotion of Religion
• The rulers were devoted Hindus and promoted temples and religious practices.
Temples like the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi were built during their reign.
• They also respected other religions, like Islam, to maintain harmony among different
communities.
Support for Education
• The administration supported learning centers where Vedic texts, Sanskrit, and
regional literature were taught.
• Scholars were generously rewarded by the kings, promoting intellectual growth.
Conclusion
The administration of the Vijayanagar Kingdom was a blend of centralization and
decentralization, allowing it to efficiently manage a vast empire. With a strong king at the
center, a supportive council of ministers, and an effective provincial and local system, the
empire thrived politically, economically, and culturally. By focusing on agriculture, trade,
military strength, and cultural development, the Vijayanagar Kingdom left a lasting legacy in
Indian history. Its administrative model serves as a testament to the importance of
organized governance in maintaining a stable and prosperous society.
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SECTION-C
5. Describe the military conquests of Sher Shah Suri after becoming the Emperor of India.
Ans: Sher Shah Suri’s Military Conquests After Becoming the Emperor of India
Sher Shah Suri (1486–1545) was one of India’s most remarkable rulers. Born as Farid Khan,
he later assumed the title of Sher Shah after a legendary act of bravery in killing a tiger. Sher
Shah became the Emperor of India in 1540 after defeating the Mughal Emperor Humayun.
His rule, though short (1540–1545), was marked by extraordinary military success and
administrative reforms. Let us explore his military conquests in detail.
1. Defeating Humayun and Establishing the Suri Dynasty
Sher Shah Suri’s rise to power began with his victory over Humayun in the Battle of Chausa
(1539). This battle demonstrated Sher Shah's strategic brilliance. Humayun was forced to
flee, and Sher Shah declared himself the ruler of Delhi. However, his most decisive battle
was the Battle of Kannauj (1540), where he crushed Humayun’s forces entirely, compelling
the Mughal emperor to take refuge in Persia. This victory firmly established Sher Shah as the
ruler of northern India and marked the beginning of the Suri dynasty.
2. Conquest of Bengal
Sher Shah understood the importance of Bengal, one of the wealthiest regions of India.
Soon after his victory over Humayun, Sher Shah turned his attention to Bengal. He captured
its capital, Gaur, by defeating the local rulers. This conquest was significant because it gave
Sher Shah control over Bengal's vast resources, including its fertile lands and rich trade
routes. By securing Bengal, Sher Shah consolidated his hold over eastern India.
3. Control Over Rajput Territories
Sher Shah’s next major challenge came from the Rajputs, a powerful warrior clan who
controlled several regions in Rajasthan and central India. The Rajputs were known for their
valor and resistance to foreign invaders. Sher Shah launched a campaign against them to
secure his empire's western borders.
• Battle of Raisen (1543): In this campaign, Sher Shah captured the fort of Raisen in
modern-day Madhya Pradesh. The Rajput defenders fought bravely but eventually
surrendered to Sher Shah’s superior tactics and larger army.
• Campaign Against Malwa and Bundelkhand: Sher Shah also subdued the rulers of
Malwa and Bundelkhand, expanding his influence in central India. By doing so, he
eliminated the threat of Rajput uprisings in the region.
4. Conquest of Punjab
Punjab was a strategically important region due to its location on the northwestern frontier
of India. It served as a gateway for invasions from Central Asia. After Humayun’s defeat, the
Mughal-controlled Punjab became vulnerable. Sher Shah quickly moved to annex Punjab,
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strengthening his empire's defenses and securing the trade routes that passed through the
region.
5. Control of Multan and Sindh
Sher Shah extended his empire further west by capturing Multan and Sindh, regions in
present-day Pakistan. These areas were crucial for controlling the Indus Valley and
maintaining trade links with Central Asia. By securing Multan and Sindh, Sher Shah ensured
that his empire was protected from invasions from the northwest.
6. Campaign in the Deccan
Although Sher Shah's primary focus was on northern and central India, he also attempted to
expand his influence in the Deccan (southern India). His campaigns in the Deccan were not
as successful as his northern conquests, mainly because of logistical challenges and
resistance from local rulers. However, he managed to establish a foothold in some regions,
which laid the groundwork for future expansion by his successors.
7. Fortification of the Empire
Sher Shah's military campaigns were not limited to territorial conquests. He also focused on
securing his empire by building strong forts and maintaining a disciplined army.
• Fort of Rohtasgarh: Sher Shah constructed the fort of Rohtasgarh in Bihar, which
became a symbol of his power. This fort was strategically located and served as a
defense against potential invasions.
• Fortified Roads: Sher Shah built a network of roads connecting various parts of his
empire. The most famous of these was the Grand Trunk Road, which connected
Peshawar in the northwest to Bengal in the east. These roads not only facilitated
trade and administration but also allowed Sher Shah to move his armies quickly
during military campaigns.
8. Strategic and Tactical Brilliance
Sher Shah Suri was a master strategist and tactician. He relied on quick and decisive action,
which often gave him an advantage over his enemies. His military campaigns were
characterized by careful planning and efficient execution. For instance:
• Use of Guerrilla Tactics: Sher Shah often used guerrilla tactics to surprise and
outmaneuver his enemies. For example, in the Battle of Chausa, he used the element
of surprise to overwhelm Humayun’s forces.
• Well-Trained Army: Sher Shah maintained a disciplined and professional army. He
ensured that his soldiers were well-equipped and motivated, which contributed
significantly to his military successes.
9. Legacy of Military Conquests
Sher Shah’s military conquests laid the foundation for a strong and unified empire in
northern India. His victories over powerful opponents, such as Humayun and the Rajputs,
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demonstrated his exceptional leadership and military skills. Although his reign was short, his
conquests ensured the stability and prosperity of his empire.
Conclusion
Sher Shah Suri’s military conquests were a testament to his strategic brilliance and
determination. After becoming the Emperor of India, he expanded his empire through a
series of decisive campaigns against the Mughals, Rajputs, and other regional powers. His
victories not only established the Suri dynasty but also strengthened the administrative and
economic foundations of his empire. Sher Shah’s legacy as a warrior and ruler continues to
be celebrated in Indian history.
6. What factors influenced the Religious Policy of Akbar ? Discuss its development in brief.
Ans: Factors Influencing the Religious Policy of Akbar and Its Development
Akbar, one of the greatest rulers of the Mughal Empire, reigned from 1556 to 1605. His
religious policy, which focused on tolerance, inclusivity, and understanding, was a
remarkable aspect of his administration. Akbar’s approach was groundbreaking for its time,
as it sought to harmonize the diverse religious communities in India. Let us explore the
factors that influenced his religious policy and its gradual development.
Factors Influencing Akbar’s Religious Policy
1. Personal Beliefs and Upbringing
Akbar’s early life played a significant role in shaping his religious outlook. Although
born into a Sunni Muslim family, Akbar was influenced by his interactions with
people from diverse religious backgrounds. His education emphasized the need for
harmony among different communities. Furthermore, Akbar's interest in philosophy,
spirituality, and knowledge led him to question rigid religious practices.
2. Diversity of the Indian Population
India during Akbar’s reign was a land of immense religious diversity. Hindus formed
the majority, while Muslims, Jains, Buddhists, Parsis, and Christians also lived in the
empire. Akbar recognized that the stability and prosperity of his empire depended
on the peaceful coexistence of these communities. He realized that a rigid or
exclusive religious policy could alienate large segments of the population.
3. Practical Politics and Administration
Akbar understood the importance of winning the loyalty of the majority Hindu
population to strengthen his rule. He employed several Hindu nobles, such as Raja
Todar Mal, Raja Man Singh, and Birbal, in high-ranking positions. By adopting a
tolerant and inclusive religious policy, Akbar ensured their allegiance and support.
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4. Influence of Sufi Teachings
Akbar was deeply influenced by the teachings of Sufi saints, particularly the Chishti
order. Sufism emphasized love, compassion, and respect for all faiths. Akbar’s
association with Sufi saints like Sheikh Salim Chishti profoundly shaped his spiritual
beliefs and inspired his inclusive approach to religion.
5. Rejection of Orthodox Islamic Practices
Akbar was critical of orthodox ulema (Islamic scholars) who often imposed rigid
interpretations of Islamic law. He believed that blind adherence to dogma stifled
progress and harmony. This skepticism toward orthodoxy encouraged him to explore
other faiths and create a more flexible religious framework.
6. Exposure to Different Religions
Akbar actively sought knowledge about various religions. He held discussions with
scholars and religious leaders from Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Jainism,
Zoroastrianism, and even Judaism. These interactions broadened his perspective and
inspired him to craft policies that respected all faiths.
Development of Akbar’s Religious Policy
Akbar’s religious policy evolved gradually over the years. Initially rooted in Islamic traditions,
it expanded to become a model of religious inclusivity and tolerance. Below are the key
milestones in its development:
1. Abolition of Religious Discriminations
• Jizya Tax: In 1564, Akbar abolished the jizya tax, which was traditionally imposed on
non-Muslims. This decision was revolutionary and symbolic, as it removed a
significant burden on Hindus and other non-Muslim communities.
• Pilgrimage Tax: Akbar also abolished the tax levied on Hindus for undertaking
pilgrimages. This action further strengthened his image as a just and fair ruler.
2. Marriage Alliances
Akbar strengthened bonds with the Hindu community through matrimonial alliances. His
marriage to Jodha Bai, a Rajput princess, was a significant step toward integrating Hindus
into the Mughal court. Such alliances symbolized his respect for Hindu culture and
traditions.
3. Appointment of Hindu Nobles
Akbar actively appointed capable Hindu leaders to high-ranking positions. Figures like Raja
Todar Mal, who reformed the revenue system, and Raja Man Singh, a key military leader,
demonstrated Akbar’s commitment to inclusivity.
4. Ibadat Khana (House of Worship)
In 1575, Akbar built the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri. This hall became a venue for
interfaith discussions, where scholars and leaders from different religions debated
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philosophical and theological ideas. Initially, the discussions were dominated by Islamic
scholars, but Akbar soon invited representatives of other religions, including Hindus,
Christians, Jains, and Parsis.
5. Creation of Din-i-Ilahi
• In 1582, Akbar founded Din-i-Ilahi (Religion of God), an ethical and spiritual
framework that sought to unify the best practices of various religions. It emphasized
virtues like honesty, piety, and kindness while rejecting dogmatism and rituals.
• Din-i-Ilahi was not meant to replace existing religions but to encourage mutual
respect and understanding. However, it gained limited acceptance, primarily
because it lacked widespread appeal and organizational structure.
6. Respect for Local Customs
Akbar respected the cultural and religious practices of his subjects. For instance, he
participated in Hindu festivals like Diwali and Holi and ensured that the Mughal court
celebrated these occasions. Such gestures endeared him to his Hindu subjects.
7. Reforms in Judicial and Administrative Systems
Akbar introduced judicial reforms to ensure fairness for people of all religions. For example,
Hindu customs were respected in matters like marriage, inheritance, and religious practices.
This approach strengthened the trust of non-Muslims in his administration.
8. Tolerance for Missionaries
Akbar welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Europe to his court. He listened to their ideas and
even allowed them to explain Christian doctrines. While he did not adopt Christianity, this
openness demonstrated his willingness to explore different religious perspectives.
Examples of Akbar’s Religious Policy in Practice
• Fatehpur Sikri: Akbar’s city of Fatehpur Sikri symbolized his vision of cultural and
religious synthesis. It featured architectural elements inspired by both Islamic and
Hindu traditions.
• Rajput Loyalty: The Rajputs, a powerful Hindu community, became one of the
strongest pillars of Akbar’s empire. Their loyalty was largely a result of Akbar’s
respectful and inclusive policies.
Significance of Akbar’s Religious Policy
1. Fostered Unity
Akbar’s policy created a sense of unity among his diverse subjects. By emphasizing
inclusivity, he minimized religious conflicts and ensured political stability.
2. Promoted Cultural Exchange
His encouragement of interfaith dialogue and tolerance led to a rich cultural
exchange, evident in art, architecture, and literature.
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3. Laid Foundations for Secularism
Akbar’s principles of religious tolerance and fairness can be seen as an early form of
secularism, where the state respects all faiths equally.
4. Strengthened the Mughal Empire
By winning the trust of his Hindu subjects, Akbar secured the loyalty of the majority
population. This loyalty contributed significantly to the strength and longevity of the
Mughal Empire.
Conclusion
Akbar’s religious policy was a reflection of his visionary leadership and deep understanding
of India’s socio-political complexities. By promoting tolerance and inclusivity, he not only
ensured the stability of his empire but also set an example of harmonious coexistence. His
actions, such as abolishing discriminatory taxes, inviting interfaith dialogue, and respecting
local customs, demonstrated his commitment to justice and fairness. Although his
experiment with Din-i-Ilahi did not achieve widespread success, it underscored his desire to
unify people beyond religious boundaries. Akbar’s legacy remains a shining example of a
ruler who prioritized the welfare of his people above rigid sectarianism.
SECTION-D
7. Write an essay on the Mansabdari System pointing out its main merits and demerits.
Ans: The Mansabdari System: Merits and Demerits
The Mansabdari system was a unique administrative and military structure introduced by
the Mughal emperor Akbar in India. The term "Mansab" is derived from the Arabic word
meaning "rank" or "position." This system served as the backbone of the Mughal
administration, combining military organization with civil governance. It ensured effective
control over the vast Mughal Empire and was pivotal in maintaining centralized power.
Let’s explore the Mansabdari system in detail, highlighting its features, merits, and
demerits.
What was the Mansabdari System?
The Mansabdari system was a hierarchical framework used by the Mughals to organize their
empire. It assigned ranks to officials, known as Mansabdars, who were responsible for both
civil administration and military duties. Each Mansabdar was given a numerical rank that
defined their status, responsibilities, and the number of soldiers they had to maintain.
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Key Features of the Mansabdari System:
1. Dual Rank Structure:
o Each Mansabdar had two numerical designations:
▪ Zat Rank: This indicated the personal status or salary of the
Mansabdar.
▪ Sawar Rank: This specified the number of cavalry soldiers the
Mansabdar was required to maintain for the emperor.
o For example, a Mansabdar with a rank of 500 Zat and 200 Sawar had a high
personal rank but was required to maintain only 200 cavalrymen.
2. Recruitment and Loyalty:
o Mansabdars were appointed directly by the emperor, ensuring their loyalty
to the central authority.
o They could be nobles, military officers, or civil administrators.
3. Payment System:
o Mansabdars were paid either in cash (naqd) or through the Jagir system,
where they were assigned land revenue from specific regions.
4. Hierarchy:
o The system was highly structured, with ranks ranging from 10 to 10,000,
reflecting an individual’s position in the empire.
o Only the most trusted officials, like princes or senior nobles, held ranks above
5,000.
5. Accountability:
o Regular audits and inspections ensured that Mansabdars fulfilled their duties,
such as maintaining the required number of soldiers.
Merits of the Mansabdari System
1. Efficient Administration:
o The Mansabdari system helped Akbar establish a strong, centralized
administration. By combining civil and military responsibilities, it reduced the
chances of rebellion and inefficiency.
o Example: Mansabdars were directly accountable to the emperor, ensuring
that they worked diligently to maintain order in their assigned regions.
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2. Integration of Diverse Groups:
o The system promoted unity by integrating diverse groups into the
administration, including Rajputs, Afghans, and Turks.
o Akbar’s policy of appointing Hindus like Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh
as Mansabdars created a sense of inclusion and loyalty.
3. Flexibility and Scalability:
o The system was adaptable to the changing needs of the empire. As the
empire expanded, new ranks and Mansabdars could be added without
disrupting the existing structure.
4. Economic Strength:
o The Jagir system ensured a steady flow of revenue to the state. Mansabdars
collected taxes from their Jagirs and used the revenue to maintain their
troops.
5. Military Power:
o By linking military service to administrative positions, the Mansabdari system
ensured the emperor had a ready and loyal army at his disposal.
6. Checks and Balances:
o Regular inspections, audits, and the rotation of Jagirs ensured that
Mansabdars could not exploit their positions or become too powerful.
Demerits of the Mansabdari System
1. Corruption and Exploitation:
o Many Mansabdars focused more on personal gain than on fulfilling their
duties. They often over-collected taxes from peasants, leading to widespread
discontent.
o Example: Peasants in Jagir areas were sometimes forced to pay exorbitant
taxes, reducing agricultural productivity.
2. Heavy Burden on Peasants:
o The Jagir system placed a heavy financial burden on farmers. Frequent
transfers of Mansabdars disrupted local economies and caused uncertainty
among the rural population.
3. Lack of Permanency:
o The Jagirs assigned to Mansabdars were not hereditary and were frequently
rotated. While this reduced the risk of rebellion, it discouraged long-term
development and stability in the assigned regions.
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4. Overdependence on Individuals:
o The system relied heavily on the competence and loyalty of individual
Mansabdars. If a Mansabdar was corrupt or inefficient, it could lead to
mismanagement in his assigned area.
5. Administrative Complexity:
o The dual rank system (Zat and Sawar) created confusion and inefficiencies.
Many Mansabdars maintained fewer soldiers than their Sawar rank required,
weakening the military.
6. Economic Strain:
o Maintaining the Mansabdari system was expensive. The payment of salaries
and the allocation of Jagirs drained the imperial treasury, especially during
times of war or famine.
7. Decline of Efficiency Over Time:
o The system worked well during Akbar’s reign but began to deteriorate under
his successors. By the time of Aurangzeb, the Mansabdari system had
become bloated, with too many Mansabdars vying for limited resources.
Impact of the Mansabdari System
The Mansabdari system played a crucial role in shaping the Mughal Empire. It allowed the
empire to expand and consolidate its territories, bringing stability and prosperity during
Akbar’s reign. However, its inherent flaws contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire
in the later years.
Conclusion
The Mansabdari system was a visionary administrative mechanism that helped the Mughal
emperors govern one of the largest empires in the world. While it had several merits, such
as administrative efficiency, inclusivity, and military strength, its demerits, like corruption,
exploitation, and economic strain, gradually weakened the empire.
Despite its flaws, the Mansabdari system remains an important example of governance in
Indian history, showcasing the strengths and challenges of managing a diverse and vast
empire. Its legacy provides valuable lessons in balancing central authority with local
administration, a challenge that remains relevant in modern governance systems.
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8. Discuss Maratha Administration under Shivaji.
Ans: Maratha Administration under Shivaji
Shivaji Maharaj (1627-1680), the founder of the Maratha Empire, was not only a brilliant
warrior but also an exceptional administrator. His administration was well-organized and
effective, aimed at creating a stable and prosperous state. Shivaji’s governance system
blended traditional Indian administrative practices with innovative methods to suit the
needs of his growing kingdom. Below, we will explore the key aspects of Shivaji’s
administration in simple and easy-to-understand language.
1. Central Administration
Shivaji established a central government to ensure smooth governance across his empire. At
the core of his administration was the Council of Ministers, known as the Ashtapradhan
(Council of Eight Ministers). Each minister had specific responsibilities, making the system
efficient and organized. Let us take a look at the key roles of these ministers:
• Peshwa (Prime Minister): The Peshwa was the chief executive officer and often
acted as Shivaji’s deputy. He supervised the overall functioning of the government.
• Amatya (Finance Minister): The Amatya managed the kingdom’s finances, prepared
budgets, and ensured proper collection of revenue.
• Mantri (Chronicler): The Mantri maintained records of daily events and official
proceedings.
• Senapati (Commander-in-Chief): The Senapati led the army and was responsible for
defense and military strategy.
• Sumant (Foreign Affairs Minister): The Sumant handled diplomatic relations and
correspondence with other states.
• Dabir (Intelligence and Protocol Minister): The Dabir ensured the safety of the king
and the kingdom by gathering intelligence.
• Nyayadhish (Chief Justice): The Nyayadhish administered justice and resolved
disputes fairly.
• Panditrao (Religious Head): The Panditrao oversaw religious matters, including
grants to temples and religious institutions.
This council helped Shivaji make decisions effectively, ensuring that each aspect of
governance was handled by experts in the field.
2. Revenue System
A strong and stable revenue system was one of the pillars of Shivaji’s administration. He
implemented a system that was fair and reduced the burden on farmers. Here are the key
features of his revenue system:
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• Ryotwari System: Shivaji introduced the Ryotwari system, where land revenue was
collected directly from the farmers. This eliminated the role of middlemen, ensuring
that farmers were not exploited.
• Assessment of Land: Land was carefully measured and categorized based on its
fertility. Revenue was fixed accordingly, usually between one-third and one-fourth of
the total produce.
• Relief Measures: In times of natural calamities like droughts or floods, Shivaji’s
administration reduced or waived taxes to support the farmers.
Shivaji’s approach ensured that the state’s revenue needs were met without overburdening
the people, fostering trust and loyalty among his subjects.
3. Military Administration
Shivaji is renowned for his strong and disciplined army, which was the backbone of his
empire. He made several innovations in military organization and tactics. Let us understand
some key features of his military administration:
• Standing Army: Shivaji maintained a well-trained standing army that was always
ready for battle. His army included infantry, cavalry, and a navy.
• Cavalry: The cavalry was the most important part of Shivaji’s army. It was divided
into two types:
o Bargirs: Soldiers provided with horses and equipment by the state.
o Siledars: Soldiers who brought their own horses and equipment.
• Fort System: Shivaji strategically built and fortified over 300 forts across his empire.
These forts served as military bases and administrative centers. Examples include
Raigad Fort (his capital) and Pratapgad Fort.
• Guerrilla Warfare: Shivaji used guerrilla tactics to outsmart larger enemy forces. His
army’s ability to strike swiftly and retreat to safety earned him great success against
the Mughal and Bijapur armies.
• Navy: Shivaji established a strong navy to protect the Konkan coast and combat
foreign powers like the Portuguese and the British. This was a unique and forward-
thinking step during his time.
4. Judicial System
Shivaji’s judicial system aimed at providing quick and fair justice. He personally ensured that
corruption was minimized and that people had access to justice. Key aspects of his judicial
administration include:
• Local Justice: Village-level disputes were resolved by village councils or elders to
ensure quick resolution.
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• Central Justice: More serious cases were brought to higher officials or the
Nyayadhish (Chief Justice).
• Equality: Justice was delivered without bias, regardless of the person’s caste,
religion, or social status.
Shivaji’s judicial system reinforced the people’s faith in his rule and ensured harmony in
society.
5. Local Administration
Shivaji divided his kingdom into several provinces called Swarajya, each headed by a
governor. These provinces were further divided into smaller units for better management.
Let us understand how this system worked:
• Provinces: Each province had a governor responsible for maintaining law and order
and collecting revenue.
• Villages: The smallest administrative units were villages, which were governed by
village councils. These councils handled local issues and ensured smooth functioning.
• Autonomy: Shivaji allowed a certain degree of autonomy to local officials, ensuring
that governance was decentralized and efficient.
6. Religious Tolerance and Welfare Policies
Shivaji was deeply religious but practiced tolerance and treated people of all faiths with
respect. Here are some examples of his inclusive policies:
• Religious Harmony: Shivaji protected Hindu temples but also respected mosques
and other places of worship. He ensured that no one was persecuted based on their
religion.
• Support for the Poor: Shivaji’s administration provided relief to the poor and
supported them during difficult times.
• Women’s Welfare: Shivaji took strong measures to protect women’s honor. He
strictly punished those who harassed or harmed women, making his kingdom a safe
place for them.
7. Diplomacy and Foreign Relations
Shivaji’s administration also emphasized diplomacy. He maintained cordial relations with
neighboring kingdoms and entered into alliances when needed. For instance:
• Treaty of Purandar (1665): Although Shivaji had to cede some territory to the
Mughals, he used this treaty to consolidate his position and rebuild his strength.
• Alliances: Shivaji formed alliances with smaller kingdoms to counter the might of
larger empires like the Mughals and Bijapur Sultanate.
8. Personal Supervision
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One of the reasons for Shivaji’s success was his personal involvement in governance. He
frequently toured his kingdom, inspected administrative offices, and interacted with his
subjects. This not only ensured efficiency but also strengthened his bond with the people.
Conclusion
Shivaji’s administration was a perfect blend of efficiency, fairness, and innovation. By
focusing on the welfare of his people, he created a strong and stable state. His governance
model laid the foundation for the Maratha Empire, which continued to thrive even after his
death. Shivaji’s administrative policies, especially his revenue system and military
organization, remain an inspiration for leaders and administrators to this day. Through his
vision and dedication, Shivaji Maharaj truly earned the title of a great ruler and
administrator.
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